🌐 AI搜索 & 代理 主页
Skip to main content
Springer Nature Link
Log in

Understanding the Healthy Immigrant Effect in the Context of Mental Health Challenges: A Systematic Critical Review

  • Review Paper
  • Published:
Save article
View saved research
Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The “Healthy Immigrant Effect” (HIE) suggests that immigrants have a health advantage over the domestic-born which vanishes with increased length of residency. Most HIE research focuses on physical health, with less attention given to mental health (MH). This systematic review of 58 MH studies examines whether there is a MH advantage among immigrants and explores changes in immigrants’ MH, besides critically assessing the use of HIE theory. Inconsistent evidence was detected regarding the presence of MH advantage, whereas consistent, convincing evidence was revealed for a decline in immigrants’ MH over years. Although the HIE theory can help reveal MH disparities, this theory alone does not explain the reasons for these disparities nor inform about potential avenues to improve immigrants’ MH. A paradigm shift is needed to incorporate other potential theoretical concepts/frameworks, including the “Health Inequalities Action” framework, for a broader understanding of MH issues and to inform effective, culturally-sensitive interventions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+
from €37.37 /Month
  • Starting from 10 chapters or articles per month
  • Access and download chapters and articles from more than 300k books and 2,500 journals
  • Cancel anytime
View plans

Buy Now

Price includes VAT (Taiwan (R.O.C.))

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Explore related subjects

Discover the latest articles, books and news in related subjects, suggested using machine learning.

Data Availability

All relevant data are included within this manuscript and its supplementary information files.

References

  1. United Nations. Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. 2015. https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1&Lang=E. Accessed 11 June 2020.

  2. Ryan G, Qureshi O, Salaria N, Eaton J. Mental health and the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda: Global inaction on mental health is putting the brakes on development. 2018. https://globalmentalhealthcommission.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/UNGA_policy-brief_MHIN1.pdf.pdf. Accessed 12 June 2020.

  3. GHDx. GBD results tool. 2019. http://ghdx.healthdata.org/gbd-results-tool. Accessed 13 June 2020.

  4. Elshahat S, Moffat T. Mental health triggers and protective factors among Arabic-speaking immigrants and refugees in North America: a scoping review. J Immigr Minor Health. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-021-01215-6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. United Nations. Trends in international migration. 2015. https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/publications/populationfacts/docs/MigrationPopFacts20154.pdf. Accessed 27 June 2020.

  6. United Nations. The number of international migrants reaches 272 million, continuing an upward trend in all world regions, says UN. 2019. https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/international-migrant-stock-2019.html. Accessed 27 June 2020.

  7. Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australia’s population: Over 7.5 million born overseas. 2020. https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mediareleasesbytitle/35A203AB6DD3CA0BCA257600002314F7?OpenDocument#:~:text=In%20the%20year%20to%2030,cent%20who%20were%20international%20students. Accessed 27 June 2020.

  8. Statistics Canada. Focus on geography series, 2016 census. 2019. https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/as-sa/fogs-spg/Facts-can-eng.cfm?Lang=Eng&GK=CAN&GC=01&TOPIC=7. Accessed 12 June 2020.

  9. United Nations. International migrant stock 2019. 2019. https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimates19.asp. Accessed 28 June 2020.

  10. Newbold B. Chronic conditions and the healthy immigrant effect: evidence from Canadian immigrants. J Ethn Migr Stud. 2006;32:765–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Aldridge RW, Nellums LB, Bartlett S, Barr AL, Patel P, Burns R, et al. Global patterns of mortality in international migrants: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2018;392:2553–66.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Vang ZM, Sigouin J, Flenon A, Gagnon A. Are immigrants healthier than native-born Canadians? A systematic review of the healthy immigrant effect in Canada. Ethn Health. 2017;22:209–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Jin K, Ding D, Gullick J, Koo F, Neubeck L. A Chinese immigrant paradox? Low coronary heart disease incidence but higher short-term mortality in Western-dwelling Chinese immigrants: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Heart Assoc. 2015;4:e002568.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Ng E, Zhang H. The mental health of immigrants and refugees: Canadian evidence from a nationally linked database. Health Rep. 2020;31:3–12.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Osypuk TL, Alonso A, Bates LM. Understanding the healthy immigrant effect and cardiovascular disease: looking to big data and beyond. Circulation. 2015;132:1522–4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  16. Hamilton TG. The healthy immigrant (migrant) effect: in search of a better native-born comparison group. Soc Sci Res. 2015;54:353–65.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Kwak K. An evaluation of the healthy immigrant effect with adolescents in Canada: examinations of gender and length of residence. Soc Sci Med. 2016;157:87–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Lee R. Does the healthy immigrant effect apply to mental health? Examining the effects of immigrant generation and racial and ethnic background among Australian adults. SSM Popul Health. 2019;7:100311.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Van Geel M, Vedder P. The adaptation of non-Western and Muslim immigrant adolescents in the Netherlands: an immigrant paradox? Scand J Psychol. 2010. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2010.00831.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Bousmah M-Q, Combes J-BS, Abu-Zaineh M. Health differentials between citizens and immigrants in Europe: a heterogeneous convergence. Health Policy. 2019;123:235–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Helgesson M, Johansson B, Nordquist T, Vingård E, Svartengren M. Healthy migrant effect in the Swedish context: a register-based, longitudinal cohort study. BMJ Open. 2019;9:e026972.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Bostean G. Does selective migration explain the Hispanic paradox? A comparative analysis of Mexicans in the U.S. and Mexico. J Immigr Minor Health. 2012;15:624.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Ramraj C, Pulver A, Siddiqi A. Intergenerational transmission of the healthy immigrant effect (HIE) through birth weight: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Soc Sci Med. 2015;146:29–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Oh H, Abe J, Negi N, DeVylder J. Immigration and psychotic experiences in the United States: another example of the epidemiological paradox? Psychiatry Res. 2015;229:784–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Wu B, Chi I, Plassman B, Guo M. Depressive symptoms and health problems among Chinese immigrant elders in the US and Chinese elders in China. Aging Ment Health. 2010;14:695–704.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Mendenhall E, Kim AW. Rethinking idioms of distress and resilience in anthropology and global mental health. In: Dyer AR, Kohrt BA, Candilis PJ, editors. Global mental health ethics. Cham: Springer; 2021. p. 157–70.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  27. Ungar M. Resilience, trauma, context, and culture. Trauma Violence Abus. 2013;14:255–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Panter-Brick C. Health, risk, and resilience: interdisciplinary concepts and applications. Annu Rev Anthropol. 2014;43:431–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Windle G. What is resilience? A review and concept analysis. Rev Clin Gerontol. 2011;21:152–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. McDonald JT, Kennedy S. Insights into the ‘healthy immigrant effect’: health status and health service use of immigrants to Canada. Soc Sci Med. 2004;59:1613–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Lou Y, Beaujot R. What happens to the ‘healthy immigrant effect’: the mental health of immigrants to Canada. PSC Discuss Pap Ser. 2005;19:1.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Wang M, Beal DJ, Chan D, Newman DA, Vancouver JB, Vandenberg RJ. Longitudinal research: a panel discussion on conceptual issues, research Design, and statistical techniques. Work Aging Retire. 2016;3:1–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Newbold B, Simone D. Comparing disability amongst immigrants and native-born in Canada. Soc Sci Med. 2015;145:53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Stafford M, Newbold BK, Ross NA. Psychological distress among immigrants and visible minorities in Canada: a contextual analysis. Int J Soc Psychiatry. 2010;57:428–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Lau A, Tsai W, Shih J, Liu L, Chin-Wei H, Takeuchi D. The immigrant paradox among Asian American women: are disparities in the burden of depression and anxiety paradoxical or explicable? J Consult Clin Psychol. 2013;81:901.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Bhatnagar J. Multicultural education in a psychological perspective. In: Husén T, Opper S, editors. Multicultural and Multilingual Education in Immigrant Countries: Proceedings of an International Symposium Held at the Wenner-Gren Center, Stockholm, August 2 and 3, 1982. Elsevier; 2014. p. 59–77.

  37. Tuggle A, Cohen J, Crews D. Stress, migration, and allostatic load: a model based on Mexican migrants in Columbus. Ohio J Physiol Anthropol. 2018;37:28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Kleinman A. Medical anthropology and mental health: five questions for the next fifty years. In: Inhorn MC, Wentzell EA, editors. Medical anthropology at the intersections: histories, activisms, and futures. London: Duke University Press; 2012.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Kleinman A, Benson P. Anthropology in the clinic: the problem of cultural competency and how to fix It. PLOS Med. 2006;3:e294.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. Anglin D, Lighty Q, Yang L, Barrett M, Miles R, Slonim T, et al. Discrimination, arrest history, and major depressive disorder in the U.S. Black population. Psychiatry Res. 2014;219:114.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Millett LS. The Healthy immigrant paradox and child maltreatment: a systematic review. J Immigr Minor Health. 2016;18:1199–215.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Jawetz T. Restoring the rule of law through a fair, humane, and workable immigration system. 2019. https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/immigration/reports/2019/07/22/472378/restoring-rule-law-fair-humane-workable-immigration-system/. Accessed 21 July 2020.

  43. Wood LCN. Impact of punitive immigration policies, parent-child separation and child detention on the mental health and development of children. BMJ Paediatr Open. 2018;2:e000338.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  44. Islam F. Examining the “healthy immigrant effect” for mental health in Canada. Univ Toronto Med J. 2013;90:169–75.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Moher D, Shamseer L, Clarke M, Ghersi D, Liberati A, Petticrew M, et al. Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P) 2015 statement. Syst Rev. 2015;4:1–9.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. CEBM. Critical appraisal. 2019. https://www.cebma.org/resources-and-tools/what-is-critical-appraisal/. Accessed 17 Aug 2020.

  47. Haberer J, Trabin T, Klinkman M. Furthering the reliable and valid measurement of mental health screening, diagnoses, treatment and outcomes through health information technology. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2013;35:349.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Hilland TA, Bourke M, Wiesner G, Garcia Bengoechea E, Parker AG, Pascoe M, et al. Correlates of walking among disadvantaged groups: a systematic review. Health Place. 2020;63:102337.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Sallis JF, Prochaska JJ, Taylor WC. A review of correlates of physical activity of children and adolescents. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;32:963–75.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Zhang R, Wulff H, Duan Y, Wagner P. Associations between the physical environment and park-based physical activity: a systematic review. J Sport Heal Sci. 2018;8:412.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Fincham J. Response rates and responsiveness for surveys, standards. Am J Pharm Educ. 2008;72:43.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  52. Budhwani H, Hearld KR, Chavez-Yenter D. Depression in racial and ethnic minorities: the impact of nativity and discrimination. J Racial Ethn Heal Disparities. 2015;2:34–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Ali J. Mental health of Canada’s immigrants. 2002. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/catalogue/82-003-S20020016336. Accessed 12 Aug 2020.

  54. Boen CE, Hummer RA. Longer—but harder—lives? The Hispanic health paradox and the social determinants of racial, ethnic, and immigrant–Native health disparities from midlife through late life. J Health Soc Behav. 2019;60:434–52.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  55. Casillas A, Leng M, Liu K, Hernandez A, Shrager S, Kanaya A. A long way from home: comparing mental health measures between foreign and U.S.-born Latinos in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). J Health Care Poor Underserved. 2012;23:1719–32.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  56. Silveira E, Skoog I, Sundh V, Allebeck P, Steen B. Health and well-being among 70-year-old migrants living in Sweden—results from the H 70 gerontological and geriatric population studies in Göteborg. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2002;37:13–22.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Choi S, Kim G, Lee S. Effects of nativity, length of residence, and county-level foreign-born density on mental health among older adults in the U.S. Psychiatr Q. 2016;87:675.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  58. King L, Feeley N, Gold I, Hayton B, Zelkowitz P. The healthy migrant effect and predictors of perinatal depression. Women Birth. 2019;32:e341–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Menezes NM, Georgiades K, Boyle MH. The influence of immigrant status and concentration on psychiatric disorder in Canada: a multi-level analysis. Psychol Med. 2011;41:2221–31.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. John DA, de Castro AB, Martin DP, Duran B, Takeuchi DT. Does an immigrant health paradox exist among Asian Americans? Associations of nativity and occupational class with self-rated health and mental disorders. Soc Sci Med. 2012;75:2085–98.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  61. Yang W, Qeadan F, Smith-Gagen J. The Hispanic epidemiological paradox in the fastest-growing state in the United States. Hisp Heal Care Int. 2009;7:130–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  62. Salas-Wright CP, Kagotho N, Vaughn MG. Mood, anxiety, and personality disorders among first and second-generation immigrants to the United States. Psychiatry Res. 2014;220:1028–36.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  63. Salas-Wright C, Vaughn M, Clark T, Terzis L, Cordova D. Substance use disorders among first- and second-generation immigrant adults in the United States: evidence of an immigrant paradox? J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2014;75:958–67.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  64. Salas-Wright C, Vaughn M. A “refugee paradox” for substance use disorders? Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014;142:345.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Kearns A, Whitley E, Egan M, Tabbner C, Tannahill C. Healthy migrants in an unhealthy city? The effects of time on the health of migrants living in deprived areas of Glasgow. J Int Migr Integr. 2017;18:675–98.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Kwak K. Age and gender variations in healthy immigrant effect: a population study of immigrant well-being in Canada. J Int Migr Integr. 2018;19:413–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Huang C, Mehta NK, Elo IT, Cunningham SA, Stephenson R, Williamson DF, et al. Region of birth and disability among recent U.S. immigrants: evidence from the 2000 census. Popul Res Policy Rev. 2011;30:399–418.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  68. Davison KM, Gondara L. A Comparison of mental health, food insecurity, and diet quality indicators between foreign-born immigrants of Canada and native-born Canadians. J Hunger Environ Nutr. 2019;16:109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Gotsens M, Malmusi D, Villarroel-Williams N, Vive-Cases C, Garcia I, Hernando C, et al. Health inequality between immigrants and natives in Spain: the loss of the healthy immigrant effect in times of economic crisis. Eur J Public Health. 2015;25:923.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Farley T, Galves A, Dickinson LM, de Perez MJD. Stress, coping, and health: a comparison of Mexican immigrants, Mexican-Americans, and non-Hispanic whites. J Immigr Health. 2005;7:213–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Rivera B, Casal B, Currais L. The healthy immigrant effect on mental health: determinants and implications for mental health policy in Spain. Adm Policy Ment Heal Ment Heal Serv Res. 2016;43:616–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Calvo R, Carr DC, Matz-Costa C. Another paradox? The life satisfaction of older Hispanic immigrants in the United States. J Aging Health. 2016;29:3–24.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Wu Z, Schimmele CM. The healthy migrant effect on depression: variation over time? Can Stud Popul. 2005;32:271.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Breslau J, Aguilar-Gaxiola S, Borges G, Castilla-Puentes R, Kendler K, Medina-Mora M, et al. Mental disorders among English-speaking Mexican immigrants to the US compared to a national sample of Mexicans. Psychiatry Res. 2007;151:115–22.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  75. Wang L, Palacios E. The social and spatial patterning of life stress among immigrants in Canada. J Immigr Minor Health. 2017;19:665.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Montazer S. Disentangling the effects of primary and secondary international migration on psychological distress: the role of mastery. Can J Public Health. 2018;109:284–93.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Kaplan SA, Ahmed R, Musah A. “When you walk in the rain, you get wet”: a qualitative study of Ghanaian immigrants’ perspective on the epidemiological paradox. J Immigr Minor Health. 2015;17:255–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Dean JA, Wilson K. “My health has improved because I always have everything I need here…”: a qualitative exploration of health improvement and decline among immigrants. Soc Sci Med. 2010;70:1219–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Fu H, VanLandingham MJ. Mental health consequences of international migration for Vietnamese Americans and the mediating effects of physical health and social networks: results from a natural experiment approach. Demography. 2012;49:393–424.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Gutierrez-Vazquez E, Flippen C, Parrado E. Migration and depression: a cross-national comparison of Mexicans in sending communities and Durham, NC. Soc Sci Med. 2018;219:1–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Perreira K, Marchante A, Schwartz S, Isasi C, Carnethon M, Corliss H, et al. Stress and resilience: key correlates of mental health and substance use in the Hispanic community health study of Latino youth. J Immigr Minor Health. 2018;21:4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  82. Bowe AG. The immigrant paradox on internalizing symptoms among immigrant adolescents. J Adolesc. 2017;55:72–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Moreno O, Cardemil E. The role of religious attendance on mental health among Mexican populations: a contribution toward the discussion of the immigrant health paradox. Am J Orthopsychiatry. 2016;88:10.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. Ro A, Gee GC. Disability status differentials among Asian immigrants in the United States: the added dimensions of duration and age. Race Soc Probl. 2012;4:83–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  85. Tummala-Narra P, Claudius M. Perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms among immigrant-origin adolescents. Cult Divers Ethn Minor Psychol. 2013;19:257–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  86. Viruell-Fuentes E, Andrade F. Testing immigrant social ties explanations for Latino health paradoxes: the case of social support and depression symptoms. J Latino/Latin Am Stud. 2016;8:77–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Kwak K, Rudmin F. Adolescent health and adaptation in Canada: examination of gender and age aspects of the healthy immigrant effect. Int J Equity Health. 2014;13:103.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  88. Schutt RK, Nayak MM, Creighton M. The healthy immigrant effect: a test of competing explanations in a low income population. Heal Sociol Rev. 2019;28:1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  89. Urquia ML, O’Campo PJ, Heaman MI. Revisiting the immigrant paradox in reproductive health: the roles of duration of residence and ethnicity. Soc Sci Med. 2012;74:1610–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Ronda-Pérez E, Martínez J, Reid A, Agudelo-Suárez A. Longer residence of Ecuadorian and Colombian migrant workers in Spain associated with new episodes of common mental disorders. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;16:2027.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  91. Aglipay M, Colman I, Chen Y. Does the healthy immigrant effect extend to anxiety disorders? Evidence from a nationally representative study. J Immigr Minor Health. 2013;15:851–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Straiton M, Grant JF, Winefield HR, Taylor A. Mental health in immigrant men and women in Australia: the North West Adelaide health study. BMC Public Health. 2014;14:1111.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  93. Henares-Montiel J, Ruiz-Perez I, Mendoza-Garcia O. Health inequalities between male and female immigrants in Spain after the beginning of the economic crisis. Health Soc Care Community. 2018;26:891–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Teruya SA, Bazargan-Hejazi S. The immigrant and Hispanic paradoxes: a systematic review of their predictions and effects. Hisp J Behav. 2013;35:486–509.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  95. Daynes L. The health impacts of the refugee crisis: a medical charity perspective. Clin Med (Northfield Il). 2016;16:437–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  96. Eldeeb SY. Understanding and addressing Arab-American mental health disparities. Sch Undergrad Res J Clark. 2017;3:1.

    Google Scholar 

  97. Aranda E, Vaquera E. Racism, the immigration enforcement regime, and the implications for racial inequality in the lives of undocumented young adults. Sociol Race Ethn. 2015;1:88–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  98. USDOJ. FBI releases 2018 hate crime statistics. 2020. https://www.justice.gov/hatecrimes/hate-crime-statistics. Accesssed 29 July 2020.

  99. Statistics Canada. Police-reported hate crime, by type of motivation, Canada (selected police services). 2020. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3510006601. Accessed 29 July 2020.

  100. Mason G. A picture of bias crime in New South Wales. Cosmop Civil Soc Interdiscip J. 2019;11:47–66.

    Google Scholar 

  101. Borowczyk-Martins D, Bradley J, Tarasonis L. Racial discrimination in the U.S. labor market: employment and wage differentials by skill. Labour Econ. 2017;49:106–27.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  102. Quillian L, Heath A, Pager D, Midtbøen AH, Hexel F, Fleischmann O. Do some countries discriminate more than others? Evidence from 97 field experiments of racial discrimination in hiring. Sociol Sci. 2019;6:467.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  103. LaRochelle-Côté S, Uppal S. The social and economic concerns of immigrants during the COVID-19 pandemic. 2020. https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/45-28-0001/2020001/article/00012-eng.htm. Accessed 3 July 2020.

  104. Charles CH. Immigrants are worrying about social ties and finances during coronavirus. 2020. https://theconversation.com/immigrants-are-worrying-about-social-ties-and-finances-during-coronavirus-137983?utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=Latest%20from. Accessed 20 Aug 2020.

  105. Ward E, Wiltshire J, Detry M, Brown R. African American men and women’s attitude toward mental illness, perceptions of stigma, and preferred coping behaviors. Nurs Res. 2013;62:185.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  106. Lin L, Stamm K, Christidis P. How diverse is the psychology workforce? Cent Work Stud. 2018;49:19.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. George U, Thomson MS, Chaze F, Guruge S. Immigrant mental health, a public health issue: looking back and moving forward. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2015;12:13624–48.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  108. Ontario Human Rights Commission. Talking about Canadian experience. 2019. http://www.ohrc.on.ca/en/talking-about-canadian-experience-fact-sheet. Accessed 29 Sept 2021.

  109. Zhang W, Chai L, Fan J, Wang P, Wei X, Yang L. COVID-19, racial discrimination, and psychological distress. Ann Epidemiol. 2020;52:106.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  110. Brown S, Harris MN, Srivastava P, Taylor K. Mental health and reporting bias: analysis of the GHQ - 12. Sheff Econ Res Pap Ser. 2018;201801.

  111. Craig P. Health inequalities action framework. 2013. http://www.healthscotland.scot/media/1223/health-inequalities-action-framework_june13_english.pdf. Accessed 23 May 2021.

  112. Abdul-Malak Y. Healthy immigrants? Exploring depressive symptoms among Caribbean and Mexican immigrants. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2020;7:488–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Alegria M, Canino G, Shrout P, Woo M, Duan N, Vila D, et al. Prevalence of mental illness in immigrant and non-immigrant U.S. Latino groups. Am J Psychiatry. 2008;165:359–69.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  114. Claassen K, Broding H. Mental strain of immigrants in the working context. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;16:2875.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  115. Dhadda A, Greene G. “The healthy migrant effect” for mental health in England: propensity-score matched analysis using the EMPIRIC survey. J Immigr Minor Health. 2017;20:799.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  116. Katsiaficas D, Suárez-Orozco C, Sirin S, Gupta T. Mediators of the relationship between acculturative stress and internalization symptoms for immigrant origin youth. Cult Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol. 2013;19:27–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  117. Santos-Lozada A. Self-rated mental health and race/ethnicity in the United States: support for the epidemiological paradox. PeerJ. 2016;4:e2508.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

SE was funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada during this work.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Faculty of Social Sciences, McMaster University, CNH 527, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4L9, Canada

    Sarah Elshahat & Tina Moffat

  2. School of Earth, Environment & Society, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada

    K. Bruce Newbold

Authors
  1. Sarah Elshahat
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tina Moffat
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

  3. K. Bruce Newbold
    View author publications

    Search author on:PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sarah Elshahat.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary file1 (DOCX 43 kb)

Supplementary file2 (DOCX 44 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Elshahat, S., Moffat, T. & Newbold, K.B. Understanding the Healthy Immigrant Effect in the Context of Mental Health Challenges: A Systematic Critical Review. J Immigrant Minority Health 24, 1564–1579 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-021-01313-5

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Version of record:

  • Issue date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10903-021-01313-5

Keywords